• Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
o Cardio vascular system consists of:
 Heart: pumps the blood
 Blood vessels: what the blood travels through.
o Overview
 Circulation performs exchanges
• Blood exchanges substances with tissue fluid, not directly with cells.
• Blood removes waste products from the tissue fluid.
• Blood brings tissue fluid oxygen and nutrients that the cells need to continue living.
• Blood is refreshed at the lungs, intestines, and kidneys
o Lungs
 Carbon dioxide leaves blood and oxygen enters.
o Kidneys
 Blood is purified of its wastes; water and salt is retaind as needed.
o Intestines
 Nutrients enter the blood.
• The liver
o takes amino acids from the blood and returns proteins to the blood.
o Removes poisones that entered the blood in the intestines.
 Function of the cardiovascular System
• Contractions of the heart create blood pressure which moves blood through the blood vessels.
• Blood vessels transport blood from the heart to the arteries, capillaries, and veins and back to the heart.
• Exchanges take place at the capillaries that refresh the blood and then the tissue fluid.
• The heart and blood vessels regulate the blood flow.
 Lymphatic System
• vessels collect excess tissue fluid, and then returns it to the cardiovascular system.
• As soon as fluid enters the lymphatic vessels it is called lymph.
o Types of blood vessels
 The arteries: from the heart
• Arterial wall has three layers
o Endothelium- the innermost layer, is a thin layer of cells.
o Middle layer- a thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue.
o Outer layer- is connective tissue.
• The arterial wall gives the heart support when blood enters under pressure.
• Elastic tissue allows the arteries to expand and absorb pressure.
• Arterioles regulate blood pressure by constricting and dilating
o The greater number of vessels dilated the lower the blood pressure.
 The Capillaries: Exchange
• Arterioles branch into capillaries.
• Are only open at certain times to allow the exchange of substances.
 Veins: To the heart
• Venules drain blood from the capillaries and then joins to form veins
• Veins usually have valves that allow blood to flow to the heart when open and prevent back flow when closed.
o The Heart
 The hearts anatomy
• It is a cone shaped muscular organ.
• Located between the lungs, and behind the sternum.
• Myocardium is a major portion of the heart, made up of mostly cardiac muscle tissue.
o Serviced by the coronary artery and cardiac vein.
• Pericardium is a thick membranous sac surrounding the heart.
o Supports and protects the heart.
• Septum is an internal wall separating the heart into a right and a left side.
o Four chambers
 Two upper: a right and left atrium.
 Two lower: a right and a left ventricle.
• Heart valves keep the blood flowing in the right direction and prevent backflow.
o Atrioventricular valves: lie between the atria and the ventricles.
 Tricuspid- AV valve on the right side has 3 flaps.
 Bicuspid- AV valve on the left side has two flaps.
o Semi-Lunar valves: have flaps shaped like half moons.
 They lie between the ventricles and their attached vessels.
 Pulmonary Semilunar valve- is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
 Aortic Semi-lunar valve- between the left ventricle and the aorta.
 Passage of blood through the heart
• The superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium.
• The right atrium sends the blood through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle sends blood throughthe pulmonary semi-lunar valve into the pulmonary trunk.
o The pulmonary trunk carries oxygen poor blood into two pulmonary arteries leading to the lungs.
• Four pulmonary veins carrying oxygen rich blood enter the left atrium.
• The left atrium sends blood through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle sends blood through the aorta to the body proper.
 The heart beat
• Cardiac cycle- is each heart beat.
o 1st both atria contract at the same time.
o 2nd both ventricles contract at the same time.
o 3rd all chambers relax.
• Systole- contraction of the chambers
• Diastole- resting phase or the relaxation of the chambers.
• Heart beats about 70 times per minute.
• Each heart beat lasts about 0.85 seconds.
• The heart rate can vary from 60-80 beats per minute.
• Internal control
o Internal conduction system: controls the rhythmical contraction of the atria and ventricles.
 SA Node (sinoatrial)
• Located in the upper dorsal wall of the right atrium.
• Initiates the heart beat and sends out an excitation impulse every 0.85 seconds which causes the atria to contract.
 AV Node (atrioventricular)
• Located in the base of the right atrium.
• When impulses reach the AV Node there is delay to allow the atria to finish their contractions
• The ventricles then begin their contraction.
• Signals travel from the AV Node to the two branches of the atrioventricular bundle and then to the purkinje fibers.
 External control
• Medulla oblongata a portion of the brain that controls internal organs
o Can alter the beat of the heart through the parasympathetic and sympathetic portions of the nervous system.
o Parasympathetic nerves promotes functions associated with the diastole
 Decreases SA and AV nodal activity when inactive.
o Sympathetic nerves brings responses associated with fight or flight
 Increases SA and AV nodal activity when active or excited.
o Features of the cardiovascular system
 Pulse rate = the heart rate
• The rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall can be felt s a pulse.
• Arterial walls pulse when the left ventricle contracts.
• The pulse rate can vary between 60-80 beats per minute(bpm).
 Regulation of blood flow
• Blood pressure moves blood in arteries.
o Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel.
o Systolic pressure is reached during the ejection of blood from the heart.
o Diastolic pressure occurs while the heart ventricles are relaxing.
o Normal resting blood pressure is 120/80.
o Hypertension is high blood pressure of 135/90 or higher.
o Hypotension is low blood pressure of 95/50 or less.
 Blood flow is slow in capillaries.
• This allows times for the exchange of substances between blood in the capillaries and the surrounding tissues.
 Blood flow in veins returns blood to the heart.
• Venous return is dependent on three factors.
o The skeletal muscle pump
 Is dependent on skeletal muscle contraction.
 When skeletal muscle contracts it compresses the walls of veins causing blood to move past a valve. The valve closes preventing backflow.
o Respiratory pump
 Is dependent on breathing.
 When we inhale our chst expands reducing pressure in the thoracic cavity. Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure (abdominal to the thoracic cavity). Valves close preventing backflow.
o Valves in the veins
 Prevents backflow.
o Cardiovascular Pathways
 Pulmonary Circuit
• Path of blood through the lungs
o Blood from all regions of the body collect in the right atrium.
o Blood then passes into the right ventricle, which pumps the blood into the pulmonary trunk.
o The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries which branch as they get closer to the lungs.
o Areterioles take blood to the pulmonary capillaries where carbon dioxide is given off and oxygen is picked up.
o Blood passes through the pulmonary venules, which lead to the four pulmonary veins that enter the left atrium.
• Systemic circuit
o Services the needs of all the other body tissues.
o Aorta is the largest artery and receives blood from the heart and largest veins.
o Superior Venae Cavae collects blood from the head, chest, and arms.
o Inferior Venae Cavae collects blood from the lower body regions.
o Exchange at the Capillaries
 Two forces control movement of fluid through the capillary wall.
• Blood Pressure: moves fluid from the capillaries into the tissues.
• Osmotic Pressure: moves fluid from the tissues into the capillaries.
 Water exits the capillary at the arterial end because blood pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure.
 Midway along the capillary blood pressure is lower causing the two forces to cancel each other out; there is no movement of water.
 Solutes now diffuse according to concentration gradient (Oxygen and Nutrients out, Carbon Dioxide and Wastes in.)
 At the venule end of the capillary osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure causing water to move into the capillary.
o Cardio Vascular Disorders
 Disorders of the Blood Vessels
• High Blood Pressure (hypertension)
o Blood pressure is higher than 140/90
• Stroke, heart attack, aneurysm
o Stroke (cardiovascular accident)
 A small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by an embolus (blood clot).
o Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction- MI)
 A portion of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen.
o Aneurysm
 The ballooning of a blood vessel
 Most often occurring ;
• Abdominal artery
• Arteries leading to the brain
 Disorders of the Heart
• Heart Failure
o The heart no longer pumps as it should
• Cardiovascular system: Blood
o Overview
 Functions of blood
• Blood is the primary transport medium
o Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body and removes carbon dioxide and wastes.
• Defends the body against invasion by pathogens.
o Some blood cells are capable of phagocytizing and destroying pathogens.
o Some blood cells secrete antibodies.
o Blood clots when there is an injury
• Regulatory functions
o Regulates body temperature.
o Maintains its own salt-water balance.
o Helps regulate body PH levels.
 Composition of blood
• A liquid tissue
o Formed elements
 Red blood cells (RBC)
 White blood cells (WBC)
 Platelets
o Are produced in red bone marrow.
o Plasma
 Liquid medium in blood
 Water- 91%
 Remaining 9%
• Salt
• Organic molecules
o Nutrients
 Glucose
 Amino acids
o Waste
 Urea
o Plasma proteins
 Most abundant
 Three major types: albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
o Red Blood Cells (RBC) and the transport of oxygen
 How red blood cells carry oxygen
• RBC’s contain many copies of hemoglobin
o Hemoglobin
 The globing part is a protein that contains four highly folded peptide chains
 The heme part is an iron containing group in the center of each polypeptide chain
• It accepts oxygen in the lungs and let’s go of it in the tissues.
 Oxyhemoglobin is when oxygen binds to the heme in the lungs.
 Deoxyhemoglobin is when heme gives the oxygen.
 How RBC’s help transport carbon dioxide
• 7% of it is dissolved in the plasma
• 25% of it is transported by hemoglobin
• 68% is transported as the bicarbonate ion HCO2 in the plasma.
 RBC’s are produced in bone marrow
• RBC stem cell bone marrow divides and produces new cells that differentiate into RBC.
 Disorders involving RBC’s
• Anemia
o Insufficient number of RBS’s or not enough hemoglobin.
o Can also be caused by lack of
 Iron: iron deficiency anemia
 B12: pernicious anemia
 Folic acid: folic acid anemia
• Hemolysis
o Rupturing of RBC’s
o Hemolytic anemia: the rate of RBC destruction increases.
• Sickle Cell disease
o RBC’s are sickle shaped
 They rupture when they pass through capillaries.
 Caused by an abnormal amino acid chain.
 Life expectancy of the cells is 90 days vs. The normal 120 days.
o White blood cells (WBC) and defense against disease
 White Blood Cells
• Larger than RBC’s
• Have a nucleus
• No hemoglobin
• Translucent unless stained
• Smaller amount in the body than RBC’s
 Types of White Blood Cells
• Granular leukocytes
o Neutrophils
 50-70% of all WBC’s
 First responders to a bacterial infection.
 Have a intense phagocytic activity
o Eosinophils
 Increase in number if there is a parasitic worm, infection, of an allergic reaction.
o Basophils
 Relases a histamine connected with an allergic reaction
• Agrangular leukocytes
o Lymphocytes
 25-35% of all WBC’s
 Responsible for specific immunity to certain pathogens and their toxins.
 Two types:
• B- Cells
o Produce antibodies
• T- Cells
o Directly destroy pathogens
o Monocytes
 Phagocytize pathogens, old cells, and cellular debris.
 Disorders involving WBC’s
• Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)
o Occurs when stem cells of WBC’s lack an enzyme called adenosine deaminase
o Causes the body to not be able to fight any infections.
• Leukemia cancers
o Caused by an uncontrolled proliferation of WBC’s.
o The cells are abnormal and not able to perform their function.
o Platelets and blood clotting
 Platelets
• Are made from fragmentation of certain large cells called megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow.
• Involved in the process of blood clotting.
 Blood clotting
• When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets clump at the site of the puncture and seal the break if it’s not to extensive.
• It is initiated when prothrombin activator is released by platelets and damaged tissue.
• Prothrombin activator converts plasma protein into thrombin.
• Thrombin severs two amino acid chains from each fibrinogen molecule.
• The activated fragments join end to end to form fibrin.
• Fibrin threads wind around the platelet plug to provide the framework for the clot.
 Disorders relating to blood clotting
• Thrombocytopenia
o Insufficient number of platelets.
• Hemophilia
o A deficiency in a clotting factor
o Hemophilia A
 Lack of clotting factor VIII
o Blood typing and transfusions
 Transfusions
• The transfer of blood from one individual into the blood of another.
• Blood must be types to prevent agglutination (clumping of RBC’s).
 Blood typing
• Involves determining the ABO blood group and whether it is RH- or RH +
• ABO blood groups
o Based on the presence of two types of antigens
 A antigen
 B antigen
o Type A blood
 Anti-B antibodies
o Type B blood
 Anti-A antibodies
o Type O blood
 Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies
• Blood compatibility
o Type A compatible with type A only
o Type B compatible with type B only
o Type O compatible with both type A and B
• RH blood groups
o RH-
 Do not have Rh factor antibodies, but makes them when exposed to the Rh factor.
 RH+
• Contains the RH factor antibodies
• Lymphatic system and immunity
o Microbes, pathogens and the body
 Microbes
• Microscopic organisms
• Many of their activities are useful to us
o We eat foods produced by bacteria
o Decomposer microbes break down the remains of dead organisms
 Pathogens
• Microbes that cause disease
• Body has 3 lines of defense against invasion
o Barriers to entry
 Skin
 Mucous membranes
o First responders
 Prevent infection after an invasion
o Specific defenses
 Overcome infection by killing the particular disease causing agent that invaded the body.
 Bacteria
• Are single celled prokaryotes with no nucleus
o Three common shapes
 Bacillus- rod shape
 Coccus- spherical shape
 Spirillum- curved shape
o The cell wall is sometimes surrounded by a capsule that is thick and gummy.
 This allows bacteria to stick to surfaces
 Prevents phagocytic WBC’s from destroying them
o Motile bacteria
 Have flagella to allow movement
 Fimbrial are stiff fibers tht allow it to adhere to surfaces
 They are independent cells thatare metabolically competent
 Viruses
• Are A cellular
o Not composed of cells, they are obligate parasites
o Do not live independently
o Have two parts
 Outer cupsid- protein units
 Inner core- nucleic acid
 Prions
• Proteinaceous infectious particles
o The cause of a group of degenerative diseasesof the nervous system.
 Creutzfeldt-jacob disease
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
o Transmitted by the ingestion of brain and nerve tissue from infected animals.
o They are proteins of unknown function in brains in healthy people.
o Nervous tissue is lost and calcified plaques show up in the brain.
o Lymphatic system
 Consists of lymphatic vessels and the lymphatic organs
 Four main functions that contribute to homeostasis in the body
• Lymphatic capillaries
o Absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the blood stream
• Small intestines
o Have lacteals that absorb lipoproteins and tansport them to the blood stream.
• Responsible for the production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes.
• Helps the body defend aginst pathogens.
 Lymphatic vessels
• Takes lymph to cardiovascular veins in the shoulders
• Lymphatic system has two ducts
o Thoracic duct
 Returns lymph collected from the body below the thorax, left arm, left side of head, and neck into the subclavian vein.
o Right lymphatic duct
 Returns lympd from right arm, right side of head, and neck into the right subclavian vein.
• Movement of lymph is depedent upon skeletal muscle contraction, backflow is prevented by one-way valves.
 Lymphatic organs
• Primary
o Red bone marrow
o Thymus gland
 Two functions
• Makes hormones that aid in maturation of T lymphocytes
• Immature T lymphocytes migrate from red bone marrow to the thymus, where they mature.
• Secondary
o Spleen
 Filters blood
• 2 parts
o Red pulp
 Where the blood enters the spleen
 Macrophages engulf pathogens and debris
o White pulp
o Lymphnodes
 Filter lymph
 Connective tissure forms a capsule and divides a lymphnode into compartments
 Each compartment has sinuses that contain macrophages
 As lymph goes throughthe sinuses pathogens and debris are destroyed.
o Lymphatic nodules
 Concentrations of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule
o Peyers patches
 Located in the intestinal wall and appendix
 Nonspecific Defenses
• Immunity
o Ability to fight disease and cancer
o Two lines of defense
 Barriers to entry
• Skin and mucous membranes
• Chemical barriers
o Secretions of sebaceous glands of the skin contains chemicals that weaken and kill bacteria
o Lysozyme
 Perspiration, saliva, tears, all contain antibacterial enzymes
• Resident bacteria
o Created by microbes that use up nutrients and release their own wastes.
o These bacteria prevent possible pathogens from invading
• Inflammatory response
o Neutrophils and macrophages surround and kill pathogens by phagocytosis.
o Four symptoms
 Redness
 Heat
 Swelling
 Pain
o Neutrophils respond first and destroy debris, dead cells, and bacteria they encounter.
o When the neutrophils are overwhelmed they secrete cytokines
o Cytokines attract more WBC’s including monocytes that become macrophages.
o Macrophages are more powerful.
 Specific defenses
• When nonspecific defenses fail, specific defenses take action.
• How they work
o They respond to antigens
 The body recognizes foreign antigens
o They depend on the action of lymphocytes
 B-Cells
 T-Cells
o B-Cells and Antibody mediated immunity
 Only the B cell that has the BCR shape that fits the antigen will go through clonal expansion.
 Most of the cloned B-Cells become plasma
 Some become memory cells
• Makes long term immunity possible
o Antibody mediated immunity
 The defense with B-cells
o Structure of an antibody
 Y shaped protein molecule with two arms
 Each arm has a long and a short polypeptide chain
 The chains have a constant region at the base of Y where the amino-acid sequence is set.
 The class is determined by the structure of the constant region.
o Classes of antibodies
 Five different classes
• lgG: major type in blood, lesser in lymph and tissue fluid, binds to pathogens and their toxins, actvates compliment, enhances phagocytosis
• lgM: found in circulation, largest antibody, first formed by newborns, first formed with any new infection, activates compliment, clumps cells.
• lgA: main type in secretions like saliva and milk, prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells in digestive and respiratory tract.
• lgD: found on surfaces of immature B-Cells, signifies readiness of B-Cell
• lgE: found as an antigen receptors on basophils in blood and on mast cells in tissue, responsible for immediate allergic response and protection against certain parasitic worms.
o T-Cells and Cell Mediated Immunity
 How T-Cells recognize an antigen
• When a T Cell leaves the thymus it has a unique T Cell receptor ( TCR).
• T-Cells are unable to recognize an antigen on their own. An antigen is shown with an antigen presenting cell (APC) like a macrophage.
• After phagocytizing occurs APC’s travel to the lymph node or spleen.
• APC’s breakdown the pathogens in a lysosome, a piece of the pathogen is displayed in the groove of an MHC (major histo-compatibility complex) protein on the cells surface.
• When an antigen-presenting cell links a foreign antigen to the self protein on its plasma membrane, the T cell to be activated can compare the antigen and the self protein.
• The activated T Cell and all daughter cells are able to recognize foreign from self and go on to destroy cells carrying foreign antigens.
 The cloning of T-cells
• Two classes of HLA proteins
o HLA I
 Forms cytotoxic T Cells
o HLA II
 Helper T Cells
 Cytotoxic T Cells
• Seek out specific antigens to destroy
• Have storage vacuoles with perforins and granzymes
• After T- Cells binds to the virus-infected or cancer cells, perforin is released which makes holes in the plasma membrane called pores.
• Granzymes are released into the pores causing apoptosis
 Helper T Cells
• Do not fight directly
• They secrete cytokines which enhance the response of all types of immune cells
• Help activate B-Cells
• Acquired Immunity
o Active immunity
 Sometimes occurs after a person is affected with a pathogen
 Often induced when a person is well to prevent future infection
• Immunization
o Uses vaccines which contain an antigen that causes the immune system to react
o Are treated so that the pathogens are no longer able to cause disease.
 Depends on presence of memory T Cells and B Cells
o Passive immunity
 An individual is given prepaired antibodies or immune cells to fight a disease.
 Not produced by a persons plasma cells
 Is temporary
• The digestive system and nutrition
o Overview
 Five processes are needed for the digestive process
• Ingestion
• Digestion
o Mechanical
o Chemical
• Movement
• Absorbtion
• Elimination
o Wall of the digestive tract
 Four layers
• Mucosa (mucous membrane)
o Produces mucus that protects the wall from digestive enzymes inside the lumen
• Submucosa
o Broad band of loose connective containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
• Muscularis
o 2 layers of smooth muscle
 Inner- circular layer encircles the tract
 Outer- longitudinal layer, lies in the same direction as the tract
o Contraction of these muscles cause movement of food from the esophagus to the anus
• Serosa
o Secretes serous fluid
o First part of the digestive tract
 Mouth
• Receives food and starts the process of mechanical and chemical digestion
 Chemical digestion
• Three pairs of salivary glands send juices to the mouth using ducts.
 Mechanical
• Teeth chew food into pieces small enough to swallow
 Pharynx and esophagus
• Mouth and nasal passages lead to the pharynx
• Esophagus is a long narrow tube that takes food to the stomach
 Swallowing
• Is voluntary and a reflex
• Peristalsis pushes food along the esophagus and continues in all organs of the digestive tract
• Esophagus plays no role in chemical breakdown
 Stomach and small intestines
• Complete the digestion of food
• Stomach
o Stores food
o Initiates digestion of protein
o Controls movement of chime into the small intestines
o Has usual 4 layers, two are modified
 Mucularis
• 3 layers of smooth muscle
o Circular
o Longitudinal
o Obliquely-smooth muscle allows stomach to stretch and mechanically breakdown food
 Mucosa
• Has deep folds that disappear when the stomach fills
• Has gastric glands that creat gastric juices
• Gastric juice contains an enzyme called pepsin that digests protein
• GJ also contain hydrochloric acid(HCL) and mucus
• HCL causes high acidity and kills most bacteria in food. It also breaks down connective tissue of meat and activates pepsin.
o Food is turned into chyme
• Small intestines
o Digestion is completed here
 Enzymes to digest food are secreted by the pancreas and enter thru the duodenum
 Bile emulsifies fat, which is then turned into glycerol and fatty acids by lipase.
 Pancreatic juice neutralizes chyme
o Nutrients are absorbed
 Wall of intestines absorbs molecules
• Sugars
• Amino acids
• Fatty acids
• Glycerol
 Nutrients are absorbed into the vessels of a villus
 Sugars and amino acids enter blood and capillaries of a villus
 Glycerol and fatty acids enter epithelial cells of the villi
o Lactose intolerance
 People lacking lactose cant digest lactose
o Obesity
 Intake of too much sugar and fat results in obesity which is associated with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease
• 3 accessory organs and regulation of secretions
o Pancreas
 Produces pancreatic juices
• Contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes chyme
• Contains digestive enzymes for food
o Pancreatic amylas digests starch
o Trypsin digests protein
o Lipase digests fat
• Secretes the hormone insulin into the body
o When blood glucose level rises rapidly and overload of insulin brings the level under control
o Liver
 Receives blood via the hepatic portal vein and filters blood in the capillaries of the lobules
 Removes poisonous substances from the blood and detoxifies them
 Removes and stores
• Iron
• Vitamins A,D,E,K, and B12
 After we eat and in presence of insulin stores glucose as glycogen
 Makes plasma proteins
 Regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood
o Gallbladder
 Stores bile
• Regulation of digestive secretions
o Controlled by the nervous system and digestive hormones
 When you look at or smell food parasympathetic nervous system stimulates gastric secretions
 When a protein rich meal is eaten the stomach produces the hormone gastrin
 Gastrin enters the blood stream and increases the secretory activity of gastric glands
 Large intestine and defecation
• Large intestine
o Absorbs water preventing dehydrating
o Does not produce digestive enzymes
o Does not absorb nutrients
o Absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria called intestinal flora
o Bacteria breaks down indigestible material
o Produces B and K vitamins needed by our bodies
o Forms feces
o Performes defacation
o Peristalsis forces feces into the rectum where it collects until ready to defacate
• Disorders of the colon and rectum
o Diarrhea
 Caused by infection of lower intestinal tract and nervous stimulation
 Can lead to dehydration
o Constipation
 Feces are dry and hard
 Caused by ignoring urge to defacate
o Diverticulosis
 Occurrence of pouches of mucosa that pushed out through weak spots in the muscularis
o Irritable bowl syndrome
 Muscles contract powerfully but without its normal coordination
o Inflammatory bowel disease
 Broad term for a number of inflammatory disorders
 Most common
• Ulcerative colitis
• Chrons disease
o Polyps and cancer
 Polyps
• Small growths arising from epithelial lining
• May be benign or cancerous
• Can be removed surgically
• If colon cancer detected while confined to a polyp, expected outcome is a complete cure
o Nutrition and weight control
 How obesity is defined
• A body mass index of 32 or higher
o Healthy BMI is 19.1to 26.4
o Overweight BMI is 26.5 to 31.1
o Obese BMI is 32.3 to 39.9
o Morbidly obese BMI is 40 or more
 Classes of nutrients
• Carbohydrates
o Simples
 Glucose- simple sugar that is preferred for an energy source
o Complex
 Several sugar units are digested to glucose
o Brain cells require glucose
• Proteins
o Proteins are digested to amino acids which cells use to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins
o 20 different amino acids
 8 are essential amino acids
o Amino acids are not stored in the body
• Lipids
o Fats, oils, and cholesterol
o Saturated fats usually come from an animal
o Oils contain unsaturated fatty acids
 Polyunsaturated oils are essential because they are the only type of fat that contains linoleic acid and linolenic acid, the body cant make it, they are essential fatty acids
• Minerals
o Major minerals
 The body contains more than 5 grams of each major mineral
 Are constituents of cells and body fluids and are structural components of tissues
 Calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfer, sodium, chloride, magnesium
o Trace minerals
 Parts of larger molecules
 Zinc, iron, copper, iodine, selenium, manganese
o Calcium
 Major mineral needed for the costruction of bones and teeth and for nerve conduction and muscle contraction
 Vitamin D is an essential companion to calcium
o Sodium
 Helps regulate the body’s water balance
 Too much sodium intensifies hypertension
• Vitamins
o Organic compounds that the body uses for metabolic purposes
o The body is unable to produce them in a adequate quantity
o 13 total vitamins
 Fat soluable
 Water soluable
o Antioxidants
 Vitamins C, E, A defend the body against free radicals- antioxidants
o Vitamin D
 Skin cells contain a precursor cholesterol molecule that is converted to vitamin D after UV exposure
 Vitamin D is modified into calcitrol, which promotes absorbtion of calcium by the intestines
• How to plan a nutritious meal
o 6 oz of grains per day
o 2 ½ c. of vegetables per day
o 2 c. of fruit per day
o 3 c. of milk per day
o 5 ½ oz of meat and beans per day
o Eat a variety of food from all food groups
o Eat more fruit and vegetables, whole grains, lowfat milk, dark green or orange vegetables.
o Eat less food with saturated fat, trans fat, added sugar, cholesterol, salt, alcohol.
o Be physically active every day.